Taking the Throne: Justifications and Methods of Edward IV
The Yorkist Kings, as with their Lancastrian predecessors, had a political need to justify their claim to the throne. In the case of Edward IV this was done early in his reign through the use of image rich genealogical rolls and ‘posters’ alongside written and spoken justifications. Visually, the Edward Coronation Roll identified his own lineage, along with links to legendary figures and bible stories. Soon after, a second illustration highlighted his route to Kingship and the flaws in the claims of the Lancastrian Kings. These were not the only times that King Edward IV stated his claim, or that of his line. He did so again in proclamations in 1471, and stated his sons claim to succeed him in his Will and Testament of 1475.
Taking the Throne as King Edward IV.
The decision to proclaim Edward as King of England was taken when he and his forces met with Richard Neville Earl of Warwick. This was after Edward’s victory at Mortimer’s Cross and the Earl of Warwick’s defeat at St. Albans but before the pair were in London. William Gregory notes of the decision that the Yorkists decided to:
‘Lette us walke in a newe wyne yerde, and lette us make us a gay garden in the monythe of Marche with
thys fayre whyte ros and herbe, the Erle of Marche.’The Historical Collections of a Citizen of London, ed. James Gairdner (Camden Society, new series,
xvii, 1876), 215.
Subsequently the Yorkist lords entered London, already held by Yorkist forces, and:
and they enteryd unto the cytte of London, and there he toke uppon hym the crowne of Inglond by the avysse of the lordys spyrytual and temporalle, and by the elexyon of the comyns. And so he began hys rayne the iiij day of Marche
The Historical Collections of a Citizen of London, ed. James Gairdner (Camden Society, new series,
xvii, 1876), 215.
In simple terms, Edward was declared King at a time when there was a long reigning monarch who had the backing, political and military, of much of the Peerage of England, Ireland and Wales [Only four Peers who were called to the last of Henry VI’s Parliaments were summoned to the first of Edward IV’s. In part due to deaths, in part due to the partisan nature of these assemblies. Source].
Not only that but his elevation by proclamation was made in the face of defeat, not victory. Unlike the replacing of living monarchs in the past, such as the installation of Edward III over his father, or overthrowing of Richard II by Henry IV, this was a claim born in defeat, uncertainty, and, perhaps, desperation. On the day that Edward was announced as the new King in London, a letter was written by Nicolo Darabatta to Francesco Copino, the Papal Legate who had accompanied the Yorkists to the Battle of Northampton. It sums up the events and mood as follows:
…at St. Albans on carnival day the forces of the queen and prince routed those of the king and Warwick, with a great slaughter, and that every one believed that Warwick had gone to Calais. But it was not so, as he went to meet the Earl of March, and last Friday after dinner they came here with about 5,000 persons, including foot and horse. A great crowd flocked together and with the lords, who were there, they chose the Earl of March as their king and sovereign lord, and that day they celebrated the solemnity, going in procession through the place amid great festivities. It remains to see how King Henry, his son, the queen and the other lords will bear this, as it is said that the new king will shortly leave here to go after them. As I said above there is a great multitude, who say they want to be with him to live and die (che come dico disopra qui si trova grande populo che dicono volere essere con lui ad vincir et morire). These are great matters sufficient to fill every man with fear…
Nicolo Darabatta to Francesco Copino, bishop of Terni, Papal Legate to England and Flanders. 4 March 1461.
‘Milan: 1461’, in Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts in the Archives and Collections of Milan 1385-1618, ed. Allen B Hinds (London, 1912), British History Online.
Politically, then, the situation was rather chaotic. The same may be said about the societal scenario. From 1459 until this moment there had been military clashes between the two sides, and the immediate prospect of more. These had already resulted in the array of forces nationwide, fighting in the west at Blore Heath and Mortimer’s Cross, in the midlands at Northampton and St. Albans, and in the north, at Wakefield. Not only did this result in many deaths and wounded but created a strain on local economies, worsened by floods in the winter of 1460-61. So too was there some opportunism – by both sides – to loot or take advantage of the situation to extract goods from or revenge upon their foes [see Kleineke: ‘England 1461: predominantly provincial perspectives on the early months of the reign of Edward IV’, in The Fifteenth Century XVIII: Rulers, Regions and Retinues. Essays Presented to A.J. Pollard pp 83-84. Available via JSTOR institutional login.]
Edward, guided by the Earl of Warwick, had a military and political need to assert himself and an opportunity to do so. London was under threat, and with it the hopes of the Yorkist fraternity. The Capital, having been bombarded by Lancastrian forces a little under a year previously, had a worried populace. After the Second Battle of St. Albans the citizens and their political leaders, the Mayor and Aldermen, had set up defences against a possible Lancastrian assault. though it did not turn into a prolongued siege, those defences were briefly tested before the Queen turned her force north [see Kleineke p84]. Though not entirely Yorkist in their political views, the Citizens of London were in a position which made many of them a willing audience for talk of change, a fresh start, or any promise of a peaceful, prosperous alternative.
Early statements of Edward IV’s right and legitimacy
The need for Edward of York to state his right to the throne and legitimacy as holder of the Crown was quite clear. On 4 March 1461 he was proclaimed King of England in London. This was just weeks after his ally, the Earl of Warwick, had been defeated at St. Albans by forces loyal to Queen Margaret of Anjou in support of King Henry VI and the status of their son, Prince Edward of Westminster.
Edward and the Yorkists immediate priority was to secure victory over their Lancastrian foes. Recruitment had been ongoing as a result of the turmoil before and after the Act of Accord. Calls to arms in the form of Commissions of Array had previously been made by the Yorkists in the name of King Henry VI. Now, they were made in the name of King Edward IV. Justification of Edward’s position was made as he was declared King. It used the fact that King Henry VI had been reunited with Queen Margaret and Prince Edward at St. Albans. Despite that being an inadvertent consequence of the Yorkists defeat and retreat to London, it was said that his joining the forces of his wife and son was a breach of the Act of Accord. In doing so, Henry had broken agreements that would allow him to rule for his lifetime and consequently he had forfeited the Crown. With Henry having broken the agreement, the accession of Edward of York was argued to be fair, legal, and legitimate in line with the legislation approved by Parliament and signed by King Henry VI himself [See Kleineke, H. A New Dawn? The accession of Edward IV on 4 March 1461. History of Parliament. 4 March 2003].
Henry VI having broken the terms of the Act of Accord was not the only way in which the termination of his rule was justified. His tenure as King was questioned in terms of both its legitimacy and effectiveness. These themes run through much of the early Yorkist literature and actions.
For example, in the first of Edward IV’s Parliaments, which opened in November 1461, Henry VI was accused of allowing:
Extorcion, Murdre, Rape, effusion of innocent Blode, Riot and Untightwiseness
RP, vol. 5, p. 462, article 7.
Questioning the effectiveness of Henry’s rule was one way of justifying the change of regime. It mirrors the argument made for replacing Edward II in 1327 in that it the outgoing King was held to have failed in his duties as a monarch. In the case of Henry VI this played on the perceived unfair treatment of Yorkist lords and their sympathisers along with statements about incompetent rule.
Henry VI’s very legitimacy as a monarch was also called into question. This matched the arguments set out in the debate preceeding the passing of the Act of Accord in terms of the hereditary ‘right’ to be King. It also made reference to the manner in which the Lancastrian Kings had taken the Crown in the first place. In Parliament the actions of 1399 were cited. The fall of Richard II at the hands of Henry IV was:
the violent takyng, enprisonyng, unrightwise usurpation, intrusion, and horrible cruell murder [of Richard II].
Parliamentary Roll for November 1461
That Parliament even went so far as to justify the Yorkists not enforcing their right to Crown in 1460. Whilst the Act of Accord was not what Richard 3rd Duke of York had intended, the compromise was, Parliament in 1461 was told, due to the Yorkists wish for their to be no disruption for the commons. Whereas, King Henry had abused the opportunity to retain his false position as King to orchestrate:
he fynall destruction, murderand deth of the said Richard [Duke of York]
Parliamentary Roll for November 1461
Spreading Rumours and False Information?
Alongside statements relating to the failure of King Henry VI to adhere to the terms of the Act of Accord, it is evident that rumour and falsehoods abounded in England at the time. Whether these originated from senior members of the Yorkist affinity is hard to prove but such stories would do little to engender sympathy for the Lancastrian cause and would potentially be far more beneficial to the cause of the House of York.
They say here that the Queen of England, after the king had abdicated in favour of his son, gave the king poison…
Prospero di Camulio, Milanese Ambassador in France, to Cicho Symonete, Secretary to the Duke of Milan.
‘Milan: 1461’, in Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts in the Archives and Collections of Milan 1385-1618, ed. Allen B Hinds (London, 1912), British History Online.
Arguments for Seizing Power: Summary
In the early stages of Edward’s reign, both before and after victory at Towton, the key points to justify his tenure as King were:
- King by right of inheritance, as stated in the Act of Accord.
- King by virtue of Henry VI having broken the binding terms of the Act of Accord.
- King by invitation and consent.
Henry’s position was said to be untenable because:
- His claim was illegitimate, originating from the unjust actions of his grandfather, Henry IV, in 1399.
- In joining Queen Margaret and Prince Edward in the aftermath of Second St. Albans he had violated the terms of the Act of Accord.
- His rule was not fair or just including his role in the cruel murder of Richard 3rd Duke of York.
Visualisations of Edward’s Right to be King
The key points noted above were prominent features in artwork commissioned for the new Yorkist King. His Coronation Roll incorporated a genealogical tree which traced his lineage to the origin of man. As well as including actual lineage and it’s support of the Yorkist claim, it showed legendary and biblical figures to illustrate Edward’s legitimacy through bonds to these figures.
Similar artwork was commissioned that told the story of Edward’s life and his elevation to the Crown. It visualises the parhelion at Mortimer’s Cross, victory at Towton, and includes biblical scenes to show his god given right to the crown. This also incorporated a Jesse Tree. In this case it’s focus was not so much on Edward’s lineage but more on the way that his line had been cruelly cut off from it’s rightful inheritance by Henry Bolingbroke.
Canterbury Roll
The Yorkists not only commissioned new visualisations to portray the right of Edward IV but they also manipulated existing works. The Canterbury Roll, for example, had been a genealogical chart demonstrating Lancastrian lineage. Under Edward IV the Roll was amended to ‘correct’ the image. This amendment took place between 1463 and 1468 and is explored online here.
his Henry of Darby, son of John of Gaunt, imprisoned Richard the true king of England and true heir of France, violently deposed him, and made himself to be accepted and named King Henry IV, and thus he and his heirs usurped the aforementioned crowns and occupied them, and became possessors in bad faith of the same.
Amendment of the Canterbury Roll.
Revolt, Readeption, and the need to Reiterate Edward IV’s Right to the Throne
Edward IV needed to restate his right to be King as a result of the revolts of 1469-70 and readeption of Henry VI that was resultant from the Earl of Warwick’s alliance with Queen Margaret from 1470-71. It caused Edward and his closest supporters to flee to the Low Countries, from where they launched a campaign to retake the Crown in April 1471. This phase of the Wars of the Roses saw Edward IV defeat the Earl of Warwick in the Battle of Barnet. His position remained uncertain though, with a Lancastrian army in the west of England. This prompted further military intervention, resulting in the battle of Tewkesbury. It also saw Edward IV restate his right to the throne.
The Abingdon Proclamation of 1471
Issued after the Battle of Barnet whilst travelling to the West Country to face the threat poosed by Queen Margaret, Prince Edward, and their supporters, Edward IV’s Proclamation at Abingdon states his right to the Crown clearly. It is clearly a call to arms for his supporters, along with a warning to any who may opt to support his enemies. However, it provides us with a clear idea of the arguments used by the King himself for his right to hold the crown.
rightwyse Kyng of Englond and of France and Lord of Irland, which our Right and Title, afore this time, in dyvers maners, have be openly and solempnely Declared and Approved, both by Jugement yeven in dyvers Parlements and by Auctorite of the same
Rymer, T (ed). “Rymer’s Foedera with Syllabus: April-June 1471”. Rymer’s Foedera Volume 11 (London, 1739-1745), British History Online.
It states that Edward IV was Rightful King of England, a fact that had been declared and approved by Parliament on several occasions. In simple terms, he was stating that he was rightful King by consent of the people.
Kingship by right of parliamentary declaration, however, was not Edward’s only justification of his right to the throne. He adds:
as alsoe by Victorye yeven unto us by our Lord Almighty God in dyvers Battailles ayenst our Grete Adversaire Herry and his Adherents
The justification is then not only by Right of Parliamentary declaration but also by Right of victory. This illustrates the argument that there could be right by conquest. Edward’s own justification being that he had won several battles against his great adversary, Henry VI. These victories being given to him by God, making his right not only by right of Parliamentary approval and by right of conquest but inferring that it was God’s Will.
Edward reiterates these points. They are the crux of his justification for holding the Crown.
the high Soveraigne Power Roiall, more evident Prove or Declaration of Trouth, Right, and Godd’s Will may not be had than by the said Meanes, that is to witte, Reason, Auctoritie, and Victorie in Batailles
Lineage is clearly of note within Edward’s reasoning. It was the primary argument for his father which resulted in the Act of Accord being issued in 1460. By 1471, that line of argument still held sway but was both prededed and followed by statements relating to victories on the battlefield and the approval of the authorities. In terms of lineage and rightful inheritance, Edward in the Abingdon Proclamation notes:
the Right and Title of oure Auncestrie (whos Astate we now bere and have) dyed and suffred Deth and Martyrdome
Therefore Edward states his claim by right of having been proclaimed King by the authorities, through right of conquest, and thirdly through rightful inheritance from his ancestors. Here, Edward reiterates the point that the right to the crown through rightful inheritance had resulted in death and martyrdom of his kin. Whilst not being specific, this relates not only to the deaths at or near Wakefield of his father Richard 3rd Duke of York and brother Edmund Earl of Rutland but also to the death of Richard II and possibly that of his grandfather, Richard of Conisbrough Earl of Cambridge.
The Chronicles of the White Rose of York summarise Edward’s argument as made in the Abingdon Proclamation as being that he had the Right to be King through:
first, by reason; secondly, by authority of parliament; thirdly, by his victories
Right to succeed: Edward IV’s Will of 1475
Edward IV wrote a will whilst preparing to sail to Calais in advance of the 1475 Invasion of France. Much of the Will is couched in terminology that recognises the ‘grace of God‘ which is typical of this type of document in these circumstances.
The Will and Testament notes Edward’s wishes for all manner of things in the event of his death. One is that of succession. On this, he notes his wish that his son, Edward, is his chosen heir.
in the straitest wise charge oure son Edward the Prince or such as shall please almighty God to ordeigne to bee oure heires and to succede us in the Corone of England
That the King sees fit to name his heir shows that the matter was not automatic. The notion of automatic inheritance of the Crown by right of descent is now written into law. In the 15th century this was tradition, rather than being enshrined into established Laws. Edward IV himself would be acutely aware of the problems that had arisen over the years in respect of the ‘right‘ to inherit.
His own claim to the Crown had been legislated upon in 1460 via the Act of Accord. That itself had since been superceded by arguments of Henry VI having broken the terms of the Act which gave a ‘right‘ or political justification to fasttrack the Yorkist accession.
Prior to his own taking of the Crown, or his father’s argument of the Yorkist Right to the Crown, there had been issues surrounding inheritance. The transition from Richard II to Henry IV was through usurpation and raised questions over the natural or rightful lines of inheritance. Prior to that, the succession of Edward III had to be justified on grounds of his father’s failures.
With the Invasion of France being the prompt for Edward IV to write this Will and Testament the matter of disputed Rights to a Crown would have been very clear. The French expedition of 1475 was justified in relation to disputes over the Right to be King of France. It can hardly have escaped Edward’s attention that it had resulted in what we call the Hundred Years War.
Even prior to Edward III’s accession over his father there had been contenscious transfers of power. Most notable was that following the death of King Henry I. On that occasion the stated heir, Matilda, to whom to Barons had sworn Oaths, was overlooked as her cousin Stephen of Blois seized the opportunity to become King. Whilst far from living memory, its consequences were well known.
References and Links
Bentley, S (ed). Excerpta historica: or, Illustrations of English history. London 1831. Archive.org.
Butcher, R. Propaganda in the Prepared Parliamentary Speeches of 1455-1461. Via the Richard III Society.
Drimmer, S. “A Political Poster in Late Medieval England: British Library, Harley MS 7353,” in Harlaxton Medieval Studies Volume XXX, Performance, Ceremony and Display in Late Medieval Britain: Proceedings of the 2018 Harlaxton Symposium, ed. Julia Boffey (Donington: Shaun Tyas, 2020), 333-59. Sonja Drimmer
Hinds, A B (ed). “Milan: 1461”. Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts in the Archives and Collections of Milan 1385-1618. (London, 1912), British History Online.
Gairdner, J (ed). Gregory, W. Lydgate, J. The historical collections of a citizen of London in the fifteenth century. Archive.org.
Gaunt, Sarah K. (2018) English Political Propaganda, 1377–1485. Doctoral thesis, The University of Huddersfield.
Giles, J A (ed). The Chronicles of the White Rose of York. J Bohn (1843). Available via Hathi Trust – Google Books – Archive.org
Kleineke, H. A New Dawn? The accession of Edward IV on 4 March 1461. History of Parliament.
Kleineke, H.‘Make good your ways and your habits’: Edward IV’s first Parliament of 1461-2. History of Parliament.